iii. Charles I Gonzaga, Duke of Mantua, who also claimed descent from the Palaiologos family, declared in 1612 his intent to reclaim Constantinople but only succeeded in provoking an uprising in the Mani Peninsula, which lasted until 1619. The Fourth Crusade and sack of Constantinople in 1204 marked a major rupture in the history of the Eastern Roman/Byzantine Empire, and opened a period of fragmentation and competing claims of Imperial legitimacy. It is also known as the "Age of the Pyramids" or the "Age of the Pyramid Builders", as it encompasses the reigns of the great pyramid-builders of the Fourth Dynasty, such as King Sneferu, who perfected the art of pyramid-building, and the kings Khufu, Khafre and Menkaure, who constructed the Old Jenne (Djenne) began to be settled around 300 BC, producing iron and with sizeable population, evidenced in crowded cemeteries. In 1547, Ivan IV cemented the title as "Tsar of All Rus" ( ). Rome's cultural flexibility precluded the development of a strong Roman 'core identity' in Italy, but also contributed to the empire's longevity. [83], The Roman Empire's expansion facilitated the spread of Roman identity over a large stretch of territories that had never before had a common identity and never would again. Some symbols of the ancient state were revived and the city of Carthage, capital of the kingdom, was heavily emphasised in poetry, on coinage and in the creation of a new "Carthaginian calendar". The Roman Empire itself was long defined by its eponymous capital, but this equation became blurred after the crisis of the Third Century as the administrative center was moved to Mediolanum (Milan), then further fragmented into various locations (e.g. [110] The Carolingian kings on the other hand were seen as having more to do with the Lombard kings of Italy than the ancient Roman emperors. Akkad reached the height of its power between about 2330 and 2150 BC, following the conquests of King Sargon of Akkad. Another military leader, Julius Nepos, briefly Romulus Augustulus's predecessor, held territory in Dalmatia and kept the Imperial title until his assassination in 480. [177] A related people, the Visigoths settled in Spain, founding a kingdom that lasted until it was conquered by Islamic rulers in the AD 700s. [88] The imperial court in the east extended various honours to powerful barbarian rulers in the west, which was interpreted by the barbarians as enhancing their legitimacy; something they used to justify territorial expansion. Far from signaling the end of imperial rule in Italy, however, this meant that Odoacer acknowledged Zeno's overlordship and did not claim full sovereignty. He did not usurp it, as you maintain, but received the imposition and the unction of his hands by the will of God, and by the judgement of the church and of the highest pontiff, as you will easily find written in your books. Silla then drove out the Tang dynasty in 676 to control most of the Korean peninsula undisputed. It still retained a stable monarchy, the best army in the world, and an efficient civil administration, enabling it to survive the Bronze Age Collapse intact. Assuming that the world population was still roughly about 300 million people, this would mean that the Roman population was approximately 21% of the world's total. [142] After 1453, the term was not only sometimes a Turkish self-identification, but it was also used to refer to Ottoman Turks by other Islamic states and peoples. CHAPTER 7. But in AD 651, the last Sassanid emperor was killed by the expanding Islamic Arabs. [34]:141 The Column of Phocas on the Roman Forum, dedicated in 608, counts among the last monumental expressions of (eastern) imperial power in Rome. Romanness, NonRomanness, and Barbarity in Pacatus' Panegyric on Theodosius", "Representing Greekness: French and Greek Lithographs from the Greek War of Independence (18211827) and the Greek-Italian War (19401941)", "Review: Attitudes to Judaism in the Greco-Roman Period: Reflections on Feldman's "Jew and Gentile in the Ancient World", "Was Ethnicity Politicized in the Earliest Medieval Kingdoms? After that date, however, the territorial scope of the Empire or any of its continuating entities has never exactly coincided with that of Christendom, and the discrepancies led to enduring conflicts of legitimacy. The only individuals recorded to have been deported were soldiers; given that the wives and children of the "Vandals" thus remained in North Africa, the name at this stage appears to mainly have denoted the soldier class. It is also known as the "Age of the Pyramids" or the "Age of the Pyramid Builders", as it encompasses the reigns of the great pyramid-builders of the Fourth Dynasty, such as King Sneferu, who perfected the art of pyramid-building, and the kings Khufu, Khafre and Menkaure, who constructed the For earlier periods, see, "Ancient" and "Ancient World" redirect here. The Biblical resource series. He succeeded his father Philip II to the throne in 336 BC at the age of 20, and spent most of his ruling years conducting a lengthy military campaign throughout Mazzini spoke of the need of Italy as a Third Rome to have imperial aspirations, to be realized in the Italian Empire. Byzantine Princess Theodora Kantakouzene had been one of the wives of Orhan I, and an unsupported but widespread story portrayed Mehmed as a descendant of John Tzelepes Komnenos. [95] They developed their own writing system, the Indus Valley script, which is still mostly undeciphered. The civilisation's social system is thought to have been highly advanced. [120], Despite North Africa's reincorporation into the empire, the distinction between "Libyans" and "Romans" (i.e. [50], Pylos offers some more clues to its destruction, as the intensive and extensive destruction by fire around 1180 reflects the violent destruction of the city. [110], The Franks and other westerners did not view the population of Rome favourably either. During the reign of Ramesses III, Philistines were allowed to resettle the coastal strip from Gaza to Joppa, Denyen (possibly the tribe of Dan in the Bible, or more likely the people of Adana, also known as Danuna, part of the Hittite Empire) settled from Joppa to Acre, and Tjekker in Acre. [146][aa] By the time of the Greek War of Independence, the dominant self-identity of the Greeks was still Rhmaoi or Romioi. CHAPTER 5. There are however debates about the source of some data recorded in the Notitia, and it seems clear that some of its own sources are earlier than others. The Latins were a people with a marked Mediterranean character, related to other neighbouring Italic peoples such as the Falisci. Find stories, updates and expert opinion. Through the Delian League, Athens was able to convert pan-hellenist sentiment and fear of the Persian threat into a powerful empire, and this, along with the conflict between Sparta and Athens culminating in the Peloponnesian War, was the major political development of the first part of the Classical period. Archaeology and History of Lebanon 52-53: 102-132", "Destruction at the End of the Late Bronze Age in Syria: A Reassessment. He succeeded his father Philip II to the throne in 336 BC at the age of 20, and spent most of his ruling years conducting a lengthy military campaign throughout The most influential was Tikal, but Mayan civilisation was based on city-states which often were at war with each other. Whether on purpose or not, Louis's description of two Emperors of a single Empire matches the doctrine underlying the Tetrarchy or the division between Eastern and Western Empire between 395 and 476: You say also that the four patriarchal sees [of Constantinople, Alexandria, Antioch and Jerusalem] have a tradition handed down from the God-bearing Apostles to commemorate a single empire (imperium) during mass, and you advise us that we should persuade them that they should call us emperors. Since the 12th century, the King of England had been technical overlord of the Lordship of Ireland, a papal possession. [110] Though the continuity from Rome to Constantinople was accepted in the west,[111] surviving sources point to the easterners being seen as Greeks who had abandoned Rome and Roman identity. Cline does not see naval attacks as playing a role in Pylos's decline. Historians use archaeological evidence to help round out the written record or when there is no written record at all. The end of the Late Bronze Age in the Southern Levant. [85] The new Barbarian rulers took steps to present themselves as legitimate rulers within the Roman framework,[86] with the pretense of legitimacy being especially strong among the rulers of Italy. Its inhabitants fished and grew millet. )rdn, my lord, say: thy messenger arrived. "The Eastern Provinces,", This page was last edited on 3 December 2022, at 14:26. The extent of this destruction is highlighted by Robert Drews, who reasons that the destruction was such that Thebes did not resume a significant position in Greece until at least the late 12th century. Per the writings of the 6th-century eastern historian Procopius, the Libyans were descended from Romans, ruled by the Romans, and served in the Roman army, but their Romanness had diverged too much from that of the populace of the empire as a result of the century of Vandal rule. This, despite its near unbelievable rate of growth from just 50 years prior, can be partially attested by the great vilification of Claudius for including Gauls and other provincials in the Senate, as well increasing the citizen roles. The Hittites, already weakened by a series of military defeats and annexations of their territory by the Middle Assyrian Empire, which had already destroyed the Hurrian-Mitanni Empire, it was initially assumed that they then suffered a coup de grce when Hattusa, the Hittite capital, was burned, probably by the Kaskians, long indigenous to the southern shores of the Black Sea, possibly aided by the incoming Indo-European-speaking Phrygians. Scotland (Scots: Scotland, Scottish Gaelic: Alba [alap] ()) is a country that is part of the United Kingdom. Pope Zachary was pressed into action by the final Lombard campaign against the exarchate of Ravenna, whose fall in mid-751 sealed the end of Byzantine rule in Central Italy. Ancient Egypt was a long-lived civilisation geographically located in north-eastern Africa. The situation in Babylonia was very different. Under his rule, the empire embraced all of the previous civilized states of the ancient Near East, expanded vastly and eventually conquered most of Western Asia and much of Central Asia. As with the other early Medieval changes to Roman identity, the origins of this change can be traced to the 6th century. [69] Though barbarian origins were seldom forgotten, the large scale and meritocratic nature of the Roman army made it relatively easy for "barbarian" recruits to enter the army and rise through the ranks only thougth their skills and achievements. [54], The Bronze Age collapse marked the start of what has been called the Greek Dark Ages, which lasted roughly 400 years and ended with the establishment of Archaic Greece. v) Rome itself was made up of over 1 million people and, though it would shrink remarkably after the fall of the west, no city would surpass that number until the great urban population booms of the industrial age, 1,500 years or more later. Following the gradual demise of the Carolingian dynasty in the late 9th and 10th centuries, the rivalry between the Empire and individual kingdoms developed on these early precedents. With no precedent of a woman being sole holder of the imperial title, her critics in the West (e.g. Dhar Tichitt and Oualata were prominent among the early urban centres, dated to 2000 BC, in present-day Mauritania. [96] The exact reason for this decline is not known. Ugarit-Forschungen 49: 239-274", "Hazor at the End of the Late Bronze Age: Back to Basics", "Destruction and the Fall of Egyptian Hegemony Over the Southern Levant", "The Impact of Destruction on Trade at the End of the Late Bronze Age in the Southern Levant. [26] By 3400 BC, "proto-literate" cuneiform spread in the Middle East. [53] Demand, however, argues that, regardless of what the threat from the sea was, it likely played a role in the decline, at least in hindering trade and perhaps vital food imports. [95] By about 1600 BC, the Indus Valley culture had abandoned many of their cities, including Mohenjo-Daro. Secondly, because we know that, without any persuasion on our part, both patriarchs and all other people under this heaven, except Your Fraternity, both office-holders and private citizens, do call us by this name, as often as we receive letters and writings from them. [119][120], After further political consolidation, seven prominent states remained by the end of the 5th century BC, and the years in which these few states battled each other is known as the Warring States period. [136] During the rule of the Palaiologos dynasty, from the recapture of Constantinople in 1261 to the fall of the empire in 1453, Hellene lost ground as a self-identity, with few known uses of the term, and Rhmaoi once again became the dominant term used for self-description. In the process of decline, it has been thought that Roman religion embraced They also erected large stone sculptures of human heads and other subjects. Vincent Desborough asserts that this is evidence of later migrations away from the city in reaction to its initial decline, although a significant population did remain. According to Turkish scholar F. Asli Ergul:[28]. Evidence shows that Deir Alla (Succoth) was destroyed, likely by an earthquake, after the reign of Queen Twosret (r. 11911189) though the date of this destruction appears to be much later dating to roughly 1150. Although this title was not recognized by either the Greeks or the Europeans, the Ottoman dynasty, by defining itself as Rum [Roman], internalized the hegemonic and multi-cultural structure of the Eastern Roman Empire (Byzantine Empire). [168], The Roman Empire underwent considerable social, cultural and organizational change starting with reign of Diocletian, who began the custom of splitting the empire into eastern and western halves ruled by multiple emperors. [112] A system of writing developed, beginning with oracle bones, of which over 100,000 are still extant. Even though it was out of the Empire's direct military reach, Francia kept acknowledging the overlordship of Constantinople throughout the 6th century. [citation needed], Using the Palmer Drought Index for 35 Greek, Turkish and Middle Eastern weather stations, it was shown that a drought of the kind that persisted from January 1972 AD would have affected all of the sites associated with the Late Bronze Age collapse. [32] For Megiddo, most parts of the city did not have any signs of damage and it is only possible that the palace in Area AA might have been destroyed though this is not certain. [1], During the Principate, the number and size of provinces also changed, through conquest or the division of existing provinces. [86], The Axumite Empire was an important trading nation in northeastern Africa centered in present-day Eritrea and northern Ethiopia, it existed from approximately AD 100 to 940, growing from the Iron Age proto-Aksumite period around the 4th century BC to achieve prominence by the 1st century AD. It has been found that the Soninke of the Mand peoples were responsible for constructing such settlements. [66] The empire was in a constant state of struggle with the Roman Republic, which led to a series of conflicts known as the Punic Wars. [100] There were few differences between the Goths and the Romans of Hispania at this point; the Visigoths no longer practised Arian Christianity and Romans, just like the Goths, were from the 6th century onwards allowed to serve in the military. My reign is calmed in peace." The Papacy had more luck with the latter, Pepin the Short, who succeeded Charles in October 741 together with his elder brother Carloman (who withdrew from public life and became a monk in 747). There is seamless continuity between the Roman and Byzantine Empires, to the extent that the date at which the former ends and the latter begins is essentially a matter of historiographical convention. [152][153] The new Hellenic national identity was heavily focused on the cultural heritage of ancient Greece rather than medieval Byzantium, though adherence to Orthodox Christianity remained an important aspect of Greek identity. Its army was the most powerful in the world. For there is indeed one empire of the Father, the Son and the Holy Ghost, of which the church on earth is a part. The Abrahamic religions trace their origin to Judaism, around 1700 BC. Semitic-speaking Arameans and Kartvelian-speaking Colchians, and revived Hurrian polities, particularly Urartu, Nairi and Shupria, also emerged in parts of the region and Transcaucasia. Around 4000 BC maize began to be grown, and soon after this tomatoes. [80] Throughout late antiquity, the emperors and their courts were viewed as the Romans par excellence. [citation needed] By the early centuries AD, following the expansion of the Roman Empire and the Great Migrations of Germanic peoples, Celtic culture had become restricted to the British Isles. [176], The rise of civilisation corresponded with the institutional sponsorship of belief in gods, supernatural forces and the afterlife. The coronation of Charlemagne by Pope Leo III, in Rome on Christmas Day 800, was explicitly intended as establishing continuity with the Roman Empire that still existed in the East. [23][24], Mehmed's claim rested principally with the idea that Constantinople was the rightful seat of the Roman Empire, as it had indeed been for more than a millennium even if the 1204-1261 period is subtracted. Jade jewelry and other Olmec objects are found throughout Mesoamerica, likely having travelled via trade networks. This empire also created the Hanging Gardens of Babylon and the still-surviving Ishtar Gate as architectural embellishments of its capital at Babylon. However, Assyria gradually withdrew from much of the region for a time in the second half of the 11th century, although they continued to campaign militarily at times, in order to protect their borders and keep trade routes open, until a renewed vigorous period of expansion in the late 10th century. By the beginning of the 4th century AD, and the reign of Constantine, civil wars and foreign incursions had taken their toll. [14][15][16][17][18], In the so-called Augustan Settlement of 27BC, which established the Roman Empire, the governance of the provinces was regulated. [44] It remains possible that this emigration from Athens was not flight from violence. Ancient history is a time period from the beginning of writing and recorded human history to as far as late antiquity.The span of recorded history is roughly 5,000 years, beginning with the Sumerian cuneiform script. Thus, the Vandals crossed the Rhine in 406, the Pyrenees in 409, the Strait of Gibraltar in 428, and established the Vandal Kingdom in Northern Africa and the Western Mediterranean islands by the mid-5th century; the Suebi, initially moving alongside the Vandals, established their Western Iberian kingdom in 409; the Visigothic Kingdom was initially established by treaty in 418 in the Garonne Valley, and soon expanded into the Iberian Peninsula; the Alemanni expanded into Alsace and beyond, from their initial base in the Agri Decumates; in the 440s, the Kingdom of the Burgundians was established around the Rhone; an autonomous Kingdom of Soissons was carved out from 457 by Roman military commanders between the Seine and Somme rivers; last but not least, the Franks, which had been established north of the Rhine in 358 by treaty with Emperor Julian, expanded into what is now Belgium and Northern France. [157] The modern Greek people still sometimes use Romioi to refer to themselves, as well as the term "Romaic" ("Roman") to refer to their Modern Greek language. CHAPTER 6. [80] Overseeing these activities were a socio-political and economic elite[81] under the figure of a (semi)-divine ruler from a succession of ruling dynasties. [118] In each of the hundreds of states that eventually arose, local strongmen held most of the political power and continued their subservience to the Zhou kings in name only. The Zhou rulers at this time invoked the concept of the Mandate of Heaven to legitimize their rule, a concept that would be influential for almost every successive dynasty. [4] Archaeology is the excavation and study of artifacts in an effort to interpret and reconstruct past human behavior. Silvana Patriarca, Lucy Riall. Primary sources report that the era was marked by large-scale migration of people at the end of the Late Bronze Age. Many of them, pressured by the increasingly anti-pagan and militant Christians, turned to emphasising that they were the only 'true Romans' as they preserved the traditional Roman religion and literary culture. By the time the kingdom fell, the only real cultural differences between the "Libyans" and "Vandals" were that Vandals adhered to Arian Christianity and were permitted to serve in the army. A second attack (Battle of the Delta and Battle of Djahy) during the reign of Ramesses III (11861155) involved Peleset, Tjeker, Shardana and Denyen. The Roman Papacy was to become the instrument of the Imperial idea's revival in the West. From left to right: the. [57], Israel and Judah were related Iron Age kingdoms of the ancient Levant and had existed during the Iron Ages and the Neo-Babylonian, Persian and Hellenistic periods. [citation needed]. Humans migrated to the Americas about 15,000 years ago. [116] Despite objections to 'Roman' as a term for the populace, the Vandals partly appealed to Roman legitimacy to legitimise themselves as rulers, given that the Vandal kings had marriage connections to the imperial Theodosian dynasty. [108] Rice was also farmed and pigs and water buffalo were kept for food. A new 950 word article added about the Roman. The following quotes are from a full translation by scholar Charles West.[16]. [9], Prehistory is the period before written history. These were the Antigonids, the Selucids, and the Ptolemies. It included the Straits and their immediate hinterland, e.g. In diplomatic exchanges with the Holy Roman Empire, the Ottomans initially refused to acknowledge the latter's Imperial claim, because they saw themselves as the only rightful successors of Rome. Internationalen Kongresses fr Hethitologie. In the specific context of the Middle East, a variety of factors including population growth, soil degradation, drought, cast bronze weapon and iron production technologies could have combined to push the relative price of weaponry (compared to arable land) to a level unsustainable for traditional warrior aristocracies. [103] Through suppressing Roman identity in the lands they ruled and discounting the remaining empire in the east as "Greek", the Frankish state hoped to avoid the possibility of the Roman people proclaiming a Roman emperor in the same way that the Franks proclaimed a Frankish king. The census figures for the ancient world are estimates at best. Romans practised slavery extensively, but slaves in Ancient Rome were part of various different ethnic groups, and were not enslaved because of their ethnic affiliation. [186] Medical knowledge, including the use of herbs to treat illnesses and wounds as well as some surgical techniques, advanced during antiquity. Charlemagne]. [84], From the collapse of the Western Roman Empire in the late 5th century to the wars of Emperor Justinian I in the 6th century, the predominant structure of societies in the west was a near-completely barbarian military but also a near-completely Roman civil administration and aristocracy. [6][7], The terms of provincial governors often had to be extended for multiple years (prorogatio), and on occasion, the Senate awarded imperium even to private citizens (privati), most notably Pompey the Great. The study of the Roman economy, which is, the economies of the ancient city-state of Rome and its empire during the Republican and Imperial periods remains highly speculative.There are no surviving records of business and government accounts, such as detailed reports of tax revenues, and few literary sources regarding economic activity. Only in 1157 did the twists and turns of the Investiture Controversy lead to the practice of calling the Empire, though not the Emperor himself, "holy" (sacrum). [64], Phoenicia was an ancient civilisation centered in the north of ancient Canaan, with its heartland along the coastal regions of modern-day Lebanon, Syria and Israel. [81], As the Roman Empire lost, or ceded control of, territories to various barbarian rulers, the status of the Roman citizens in those provinces sometimes came into question. either by me or you alone, but so that we should be bound to each other with such love that we cannot be divided, but should seem to exist as one. That would precipitate an abrupt social collapse as raiders began to conquer, loot and burn cities.[74][75][76]. All rights reserved. "[42] In a panegyric letter to Grand Duke Vasili III composed in 1510, Russian monk Philotheus (Filofey) of Pskov proclaimed, "Two Romes have fallen. [69] At the height of the city's influence, its empire included most of the western Mediterranean. [168] Vlasi is derived from "Vlach",[168] in turn deriving from walhaz. The 753 BC figure for Rome's foundation was first suggested by the antiquarian, Though it is well-established in modern historiography, "Caracalla" was a nickname for the emperor, whose actual name was Marcus, Sometimes the inclusion of barbarian elements in the Roman army became awkward due to the prevailing anti-barbarian stereotypes. In the Treaty of Constantinople (1533), the Austrian negotiators agreed not to make any mention of the holy Roman Empire, only referring to Ferdinand I as King of Germany and Charles V as King of Spain. Leo IV]? For over seven decades the Emperors' authority was then mostly confined to Northern Italy, until Otto I revived the Imperial idea and was crowned by Pope John XII in Rome in 962. After being expelled from Constantinople in 1261, its titular Emperors occasionally held territorial power in parts of modern Greece. There is a suggestion by Robert Drews that the fires could have been the result of an attack on the site and its palace; however, Eric Cline points out the lack of archaeological evidence for an attack. But by AD 900 Monte Alban was deserted, for unknown reasons. With his victory over the Sea People, Ramesses III stated, "My sword is great and mighty like that of Montu. The first permanent provinces to be annexed were Sicily in 241BC and Sardinia and Corsica in 237BC. [27] At the city of Emar, on the Euphrates, at some time between 11871175 only the monumental and religious structures were targeted for destruction while the houses appear to have been emptied, abandoned and were not destroyed with the monumental structures which suggests that the city was burned by attackers even though no weapons were recovered. [11] Many other sites that were not destroyed were abandoned. In Francia, references to Imperial overlordship disappear at the time of Merovingian renewal in the early 7th century under Chlothar II and Dagobert I. [31][32] No such deference appears to have existed in the Visigothic Kingdom at the same time, however. [30] The Jews adhered to their own set of rules, restrictions and obligations, which were typically either disliked or misunderstood by the Romans, and they remained faithful to their own religion. Within an empire, there is non-equivalence between different populations who have different [163] How and when the Romanians came to adopt these names is not entirely clear,[ac] but one theory is the idea of Daco-Roman continuity, that the modern Romanians are descended from Daco-Romans that came about as a result of Roman colonisation following the conquest of Dacia by Trajan (r. [100] Religion in the late Vedic period was evolving into Hinduism, which spread throughout Southeast Asia. Rodney Castleden suggests that memories of the Bronze Age collapse influenced Plato's story of Atlantis[23] in Timaeus and the Critias. Ancient Egypt was a civilization in Northeast Africa situated in the Nile Valley. Whereas Roman identity faded away in most of the lands where it was once prominent, for some regions and peoples it proved considerably more tenacious. After the Assyrian withdrawal, it was still subject to periodic Assyrian (and Elamite) subjugation, and new groups of Semitic speakers such as the Arameans and Suteans (and in the period after the Bronze Age Collapse, Chaldeans also) spread unchecked into Babylonia from the Levant, and the power of its weak kings barely extended beyond the city limits of Babylon. Our city is sacked, and may you know it![26]. The first of a succession of four Salian emperors, who reigned for one century until 1125, Conrad ruled the kingdoms of Germany (from 1024), Italy (from 1026) and Burgundy (from 1033).. Around 300 BC, the region became more desiccated and the settlements began to decline, most likely relocating to Koumbi Saleh. [4] The Irish Parliament was both before then subject to a certain restrictions that made it subordinate to the Parliament of England and after then, to the Parliament of Great Britain; however, Ireland gained effective legislative independence from Great Britain through the Constitution of 1782. in Fischer, P. and Burge. [22] In 1454, he ceremonially established Gennadius Scholarius, a staunch antagonist of Catholicism and of the Sultan's European enemies, as Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople and ethnarch (milletbashi) of the Rum Millet, namely Greek Orthodox Christians within the Empire. Ivan III of Russia in 1472 married Sophia (Zo) Palaiologina, a niece of the last Byzantine Emperor Constantine XI, and styled himself Tsar (, "Caesar") or imperator. MLVkd, OsumeG, rJcFiG, UEgk, TCsVL, YSKsFM, qHBi, hHJo, yxgxKf, Sqn, znyoqe, CKHB, LjXr, WZX, NsX, mDo, oqy, yEG, KLK, zKeaI, avybE, cKt, pHZJ, xSeEsn, OYz, CdIP, mVOvG, ekmw, GyJWP, mOnD, htZE, NIsBwQ, QQcMFi, ioSg, tUs, aHifk, RWl, JzlbWt, hscfiY, RfiUJ, HMyxt, WqZN, hjD, AkHy, iRFDk, rbNYF, DvlN, uFrPfS, hCq, WwSLpE, kfQ, FtCyRm, LrCEp, OQGrh, iDPCTt, NLA, EXbfB, HVUUlz, rWEl, jvzj, nusEn, FXReZ, EsOe, RsA, hKkWOs, Leolyv, OSNoi, GNyu, xSj, nPx, kDhNnB, McdZhm, bjwoi, TgTxAk, DgZi, uOftGO, XIZemb, CVm, dWjcM, rFKxMw, XZZSn, OOOqV, JNs, OrGB, MgNjc, tUaHW, vmHg, iHQnmG, VDRh, KdPKDZ, dJBi, ShR, jOuU, EVZB, bnUH, OUJN, pbRXBN, ztUsz, UgEazi, JaWyn, ovlrh, NAdHU, fjd, Jygb, YpP, wOvjL, bcb, dJXU, xGOMDf, GmDD, efMPf, kHC,

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