Often science dismisses indigenous knowledge as folklore not objective or empirical, and thus not valid. Suppose the impossible: a human being who has only the one way to knowledge, to know only by apprehension through the senses. The land may end up with low biodiversity, and it may not resemble what was there a hundred years ago, but as long as theres a nutrient cycle and the ground is not eroding, they call it good: Were done! However, a few psychologists like Moore and Woodward in the U.S., Binet in France, Kulpe in Germany, Spearman in England, gave serious attention to the superior powers of the intellect. The house was filled to overflowing including Pharisees and teachers of the law from every village of Galilee and Judea and Jerusalem. Tonino: Returning to the question of synthesizing science and traditional knowledge: Are there arguments for keeping these ways of knowing separate and, in a sense, pure? Kimmerer: We can find creative ways of pursuing inquiry that are courteous and delicate and dont demand information but instead search for it. It is so hungry that it will eat its own kind. Today the average American can identify fewer than ten plants. For decades thereafter I rebelled against this way of speaking, even after I began publishing research papers in peer-reviewed scientific journals. There was a sort of philosophical and linguistic imperialism underlying this: the replacement of a way of relating to the land as kin and community with the notion that land was just property. Lets get out of here!. This probably identifies Moore as the only American psychologist to have begun a major experiment in the laboratory of and in consultation with both Prof. Wundt and Prof. Kulpe. And can we receive the offering without causing damage? 16The Psychology of Classroom Learning, John M. Stephens, Johns Hopkins U., Holt, Rinehart & Winston, Inc., N.Y., 1965, p. 164ff. Faith, however, is an activity of divine grace beyond human comprehension. Tonino: There are sixteen thousand known species of moss. However if we stay only in theory and action (i.e., the propositional and practical ways of knowing), there is little or no connection between our values, our experiences, our shared understandings, our cultures, and our actions. Be the first to ask a question about Two Ways of Knowing God Values are a great tool of awareness about yourself and people around you. The white cedars out front give me healing teas. Wilhelm Wundt, founder of modern experimental psychology at Leipzig in 1874, in his theorizing lacked sound principles of metaphysics. A forest is an ecosystem and a home at once. Empirical knowledge is best described as knowledge derived from evidence-based practice (Marrone, 2017). Reason. Take your mat with you, and return to your house. The man promptly arose and went out carrying his mat. 5The Development of Meaning, Agnes McDonough, PsychologicalMonographs, XXVII, 1919, pp. In the moral sense, person is that element inseparable from the human being which owns, directs and is fully responsible for every act of that being in mind and body. The content meaning is infinite in variety since things are infinite in number each with its own value(s) or purpose(s) given in its creation. This is a case of imageless thought, and presents an insuperable difficulty to Titchener and his followers who hold that all knowledge consists of sense images. It has no materiality; so much so that it cannot even be an object of sense perception. But I ask a botanist what theeucalyptus is and he points to a tree, assuredly a materiality and an object of sense perception. I couldnt go outside without being surprised and amazed by some small green life. The all-wise Designer of the human mind has recorded in the inspired scriptures striking examples of the two ways of acquiring knowledge afforded man on the natural level. Under Western conservation paradigms, youve got to keep people away, put a fence around nature. Who can forgive sins but God alone? Jesus knew their reasoning and answered: Why do you harbor these thoughts? He recognized their lack of faith and so proceeded to build their faith, saying, Which is easier to say, `Your sins are forgiven you, or to say, `Get up and walk? He is surprised to learn that canis means dog. That illustration also reveals how penetrating and complete is the philosophers understanding of the mental process of meaning. He denies totally the value of ideas and concepts in the knowers mind. Each plant seemed to have its own sense of self, yet they fit together as a community. Free will appears in the personal response that every person makes to the bits and pieces of objective reality presented to him/her by the knowing power of the intellect. W. Valentine, reviewing the article Experience, Concepts and Reading, wrote: There appears to be a renewed interest in the meaning phase of the reading process. Knowing how something works can also be a source of wonder. To the indigenous observer, its not some idealized Bee meeting some idealized Flower. For security, use of Google's reCAPTCHA service is required which is subject to the Google Privacy Policy and Terms of Use. 26Personality: A Psychological Viewpoint, Gordon W. Allport, 1937, Henry Holt & Co., p. 549. How could they not know? Vol. Gonorrhea was dropping in the United States until 2000, but there has been a 1.4-fold increase since then, and an 80% increase from a historically low rate in 2009. And their hands remembered data from the previous year and the year before. There is no interpretation involved in this signification, hence the necessity of having one continuous line running from the object through the formal sign to the knowing power. They take little from the world and yet flourish everywhere, whether in the city or in the wilderness or on an old stone wall at the edge of a farm. He first defines and limits the role that the Holy Spirit will play in the future Church. Therefore, meaning is something different from sensation. This is a simple argument for the spirituality of the human mind. He wrote: (a) Leibnitz and certain logicians in his tradition tend to neglect the operation for the product, and the immaterial product of the mind for the material sign. This is a definition of simple meaning as opposed to complex meaning. On top of that, he collected five rebounds . The difference between concept-knowledge and the twinned meaning-faith-knowledge shows why Christ preferred the second in the spiritual life. Here he died at age 92 and was buried at Miraflores, Spain. This is another impasse in the search for the meaning of meaning. Father Halbachs brilliant essay should be read by those who teach the Catholic faith and communicate it to others. Worry less. That personal meaning-response determines the contribution that each person makes in terms of services and/or goods to society. But I was madly in love with plants, so I worked hard to accommodate myself to this new approach. Concept comes first, since it provides the building blocks of mans knowledge upon which rises the second level of mental activity, namely, judgments and reasoning and meaning. This mental act of relating the sign to the thing signified is an invisible, autonomous act of the intellect, swift as light, initiated by the memory faculty of recall. For an answer to that, listen to the story of Humanae Vitae, Pope Paul VIs encyclical on the morality of artificial contraception, 1968. What is the first thing you should do after buying a house? . Kimmerer: Thats right. When Jesus cured a possessed man who was blind and mute (Mt. Sense Perception. In some cases, they probably dont understand what science really is either. Jesus warned: Take heed, therefore, how you hear: to the man who has, more will be given; and he who has not, will lose even the little he thinks he has (Luke 8, 18). Which is the first method of knowing something? Since religion urges the search for value underlying everything and provides the most comprehensive of all philosophies of life, it is to be expected that the subject of religion will deal with highly abstract concepts and ideas.29The well-nurtured Christian is perforce a philosopher because, from the days of the first lesson in praying at mothers knee, his mind has been gently prompted to transcend the world of sense and matter, and to commune with unseen reality. I prefer to ask what gifts the land offers. The mothers worry moves her to create a community interest in providing all swimming sites with effective safeguards that assure the sons opportunity to enjoy swimming even more. The presence of relationship in his theory may turn out to be a positive contribution. He discovered purely intellectual processes not dependent on the sense organs which he named the eduction of relations and the eduction of correlates. So my students and I build our own shelters. In their presence, and in the presence of the plants themselves, I woke from the sleep Id fallen into. There have to be incentives to do right by the community of living beings, but there also have to be real costs to going in the opposite direction. My womens book group read her book Braiding Sweetgrass when it was first published, and were still discussing it. Thereupon a variety of publishers, sensing a promising market, got into the act of furnishing textbooks in the highly specialized field of a divinely revealed religion, free to flood Catholic schools with their product that escaped serious censorship by the Teaching Church. Thomas Verner Moore, the calm and gentle priest and monk, Doctor of Philosophy, educator, author, psychologist, Doctor of Medicine, Doctor of Psychiatry, and contemplative, was the noblest person ever to grace the campus of the Catholic University of America. Jesus is very explicit about the complete cooperation that He receives from the Father and the Holy Spirit in respect to His mission on earth when He speaks to them while still at the Last Supper table on Holy Thursday night. This emphasizes further the real difference in the two ways of learning. Western science or, at least, ecology has a growing appreciation for this basic truth: if we dont have a handle on our fisheries and forests, were in huge trouble. This work by Moore solves the problem that has baffled idealist philosophers from Descartes, to Hume, to Kant, to Sartre: namely, how that immaterial faculty, intellect, can absorb or assimilate within its awareness the knowledge of an objective material being. Through the ceremony itself the food, the regalia, the time spent in preparation you are giving back. Rather, He comes as Jesus Ambassador, continuing and completing Jesus mission on earth: Will remind you of all that I told you; Whom the Father will send in My name establishes the total support and harmony Jesus receives within the Trinity. 14Thomistic Psychology, Robert E. Brennan, Macmillan Co., N.Y., 1942, p. 203. He acquired his first doctorate in philosophy in 1903 under the philosopher-psychologist Msgr. Spoerl, N.Y., Macmillan, 1938. What is the meaning of charity? This was not an act of faith. Oesterle concluded his laborious study with the brief statement, The problem of meaning is solved only by moving up to the level of knowing by the intellect.23 The eager student will find also in Oesterles definitive article a graphic illustration of the Thomistic theory of significatio which is a parallel to meaning in the modern idiom. The idea of the test was simple. In 2011, the grace of God made me acutely aware of what living my life on my own apart from Him would lead me. Physicists focused on the "objectivity" of the atom because they had a will to know. We dont distinguish one species from the next, let alone appreciate that theres a reason the leaf of this plant differs from the leaf of that plant; that a trees leaves change shape as it grows from a seedling to maturity; that bark can be thick or thin, smooth or rough. 40The Teaching and Psychology of Arithmetic, Henry G. Wheat, D.C. Heath & Co., N.Y., 1937, p. 24. Jesus said: If you live according to my teaching, you are truly My disciples; then you will know the truth, and the truth will set you free (Jn. Jesus said: Unless you change and become like little children, you will not enter the kingdom of heaven (Matt. Karol Wojtyla, now Pope John Paul II, in his intense activity and rich productivity of pre-papal years as pastor, teacher,philosopher, theologian, author and shepherd, has given us a new vision of man in his Personalism. The Latest Innovations That Are Driving The Vehicle Industry Forward. Meaning is the product of the experimental method, while significatio is philosophical, which has metaphysical features that escape the others comprehension. In relation to the Manhattan Project, the study of atomic energy was not propelled by idle curiosity. And there is evidence of collaboration as well as antagonism between plants. Tonino: But how do you get beyond that isolated moment in space and time to develop a broader understanding? The person is the center of attribution and accountability. Judgments can be negative as well as positive. I once read an article about scientists monitoring plant communication with some kind of device. In spite of the fact that we use the term `meaning so constantly, and that obviously we show in our behavior that symbols have meaning, the nature of meaning is still one of the most difficult and incompletely understood problems of psychology. The intellect is an immaterial faculty while the senses are material organs of the body. Points presented here about this upstart magisterium are drawn from Grisezs excellent exposition and are gratefully acknowledged. My more immediate ancestors finished the job by moving their families from Britain to America. Its not only Native Americans who have been colonized by the arrogance of science we all have. Mind Development - Two Ways of Knowing TWO WAYS OF KNOWING By Gregory Mitchell The mind that does the thinking has to interact with the body and control it. Gilson is prophetic when he writes that we understand meaning. The last step in that hierarchy of punishment for people who had become Windigos was banishment: You do not share our values. No Catholic bishop or theologian has contradicted this constant and very firm teaching of the Church until very recently. Plants are radically different from us, and we tend to see others as inferior. I say I live in Maple Nation. Person also acts as the unifying principle of the human being so that his two-fold nature, flesh and spirit, functions harmoniously as a single actor. We have experiences through resonance or empathetic engagement with the world. But this immediate image of the signified object does not necessarily occur when dealing with matters of faith, because faith deals often with events or beings of which we can have no parallel or analogy in earthlife. The creative intellect as used here in the epistemological context is possessed by everyone with a normal intellect. That meant that they were seeking truth in the signs and symbols of reality and not in reality itself, which man knows only through concepts, the first form of knowledge. If then some philosophers of sorts find this universal conclusion repulsive to their principles, they are the odd-men-out who need to take another look at their principles. The story of the Windigo is a cautionary tale about greed. Were talking about ideas thats the most important thing on earth. Let the Divine Teacher and First Psychologist show us how to merge meaning and faith. We must find ways to heal it. Where do we begin? Gifts help form relationships. Underlying this search for a more constructive exchange are two developing social factors of modernity. While mind needs nerves and brain tissue to acquire knowledge, the mind in its higher powers can next operate with that knowledge without the aid of the nervous system. Commenting on the test results, Fullmer wrote: The vocabulary currently used seems to be entirely too extensive and in many cases much too difficult. That data might not be quantitative, though. Its an imposed solution that doesnt always dovetail with natural processes of regeneration. Tonino: If asking a direct question of the natural world is disrespectful, whats the alternative? These are person and mind. It has also been explained to me that scientists interest in how things work leads us out of our place and into the Creators realm. The Oxford English Dictionary defines meaning in the fifth place as Knowledge, Understanding; then adds: Obsolete, Rare. Furthermore, my presence might even be influencing how the world is working around me. But we found that plots doubled in vigor and density when some harvesting occurred according to traditional guidelines. Its just moss. As such, it reminds us of our power to shape the future. The fact that these particular words signify these particular concepts is not due to nature itself but to an arbitrary disposition of mans own (in other words, social custom). This has come about, in my opinion, because too many of our intellectual leaders have a false understanding of human nature, especially mans intellectual endowments. An additional detail not mentioned so far, the introspectors were both to push the button and then proceed to describe what went on in their minds after the glimpse of an object or a word. What is the evidence for the existence of supernatural knowledge? This is the original and basic way that mankind will learn the truths of the world around them. An examination of their works and published studies will tell what happened to the two mental processes, knowing and meaning. that can make meaning of experience and share experience with others that leads to group meaning-making. Kimmerer: Yes, mosses play a critical ecological role, but they are mostly beneath our notice. Then, when I went to college, a shift occurred for me. Historically, the philosopher preceded the scientist by a millennium. Gifts invite reciprocity. We weave baskets. The reason is that the ultimate ground for our intellectual assent to revealed truth is the supremely infallible knowledge that God has of all truth. The key idea is that there are two parallel ways of knowing: thinking and feeling, intellect and intuition, objective analysis and subjective insight. When semantics, a useful study of linguistics, becomes an ism, it has gone astray, as happened in the first third of this century. The last age of the world the New Testament presents is a different picture, as Hebrews indicates. The individual observer brings findings back to the community to share. Ideas are the fountainhead of everything. We need to know that it works to keep natural systems intact. Kimmerer: Yes. Edit Details Reader Q&A To ask other readers questions about Two Ways of Knowing God , please sign up . But the human world is created through the subjective agency of thinkers, is subject to re-creation, and is re-created continually. [1] However the . Hence the skepticism about truth. We dont know it anymore. Our heritage had been taken away from us by the Carlisle Indian School. A traditional perspective instead celebrates the relationship. The idea is to pay attention to the living world as if it were a spiders web: when you touch one part, the whole web responds. I still talk to and touch ancient trees, which have such wisdom in their limbs. Agreement with respect to objects is a social realization. Why? By asking, How does this land sustain me, and how do I sustain this land? By expressing gratitude for the land. To what degree have frustration and anger also fueled your work? In spite of this favorable early instruction, the Christian religion offers ever the supreme challenge to the art of teaching. I was reminded of what Id always known in my core: that my primary relationship with plants was one of apprenticeship. It took me a long time to reclaim an indigenous way of knowing, but that restoration has shaped my lifes work. In nine relevant reports after seeing objects, seven of the introspectors use expressions like I know what that is, I have a concept of the object, what the object is was at once clear, the object is apprehended. Its not as if a thousand years ago on the Pacific coast people were measuring and weighing fish. Some people are trying to restore damaged ecosystems to their Pleistocene condition. Dewey extensively revised How We Think in 1933 in which he presented his final definition of meaning. Technology can help us get outside of our human perceptions. Soon after this, Father Moore retired at age 70 from the faculty of C.U. When I get up in the morning and breathe the sweet air, I try to remember all the beings around me that have worked hard to make this possible. In very fact, the concept is the basis of the entire mental life: no concept, no knowing, no meaning, no reasoning, etc. Teaching Arithmetic. The mature individual is a co-creator who participates in making the world what it is at any time. Moore was an extraordinary person of exceptional talents. Because he lacks the third knowledge, namely, that the Latin-speaking society has a social agreement, a consensus, that canis always means dog. Yet mosses use so few resources. For a correct understanding of the definition of meaning which is offered here, plus its implementation in Catholic teaching, will make the voice of the Church sound like a clear trumpet in a confused and despairing world. Exhibit One: A devoted mother and her son, 10, are having a family argument about a well-known swimming hole. These results proved the context theory of meaning to be invalid. This factor is the common experience of language both European and American. These mental categories may be recognized as the results of past experiences.11. At his feet sits his pet dog, Skippy. They appear identical, but are not really the same since the relationship exists on a different principle in the two. He is capable of having experience. This defines person in terms of what he does. That faculty is called the intellect. As far as I can tell, the people who make this claim dont understand what traditional knowledge really is. Mastering the meaning of such concepts as `justice; or `squareness, or `democracy is much more difficult etc. We hardly notice plants sophistication. This argument for the teaching office of the Church has a special potency since it derives from psychology, a natural human science whose laws and principles are amenable to mansunderstanding. Words are meaningful only when they refer to a bit of knowledge the reader already has. Tonino: You say that indigenous observers interact with the world theyre studying. To get meaning where a symbol is used the person must first possess three specific bits of knowledge. Later the behaviorists added muscular responses to this list. Robin Wall Kimmerer has a PhD in botany and is a member of the Citizen Potawatomi Nation, a Native American people originally from the Great Lakes, with a reservation today in Oklahoma. By the law of contradiction, concept and meaning cannot be the same mental act. Dissent remains dissent. This rejection by Peters successor of any dissent from official teaching is supported in the total history of the Church. We have here two different ideas of the Magisterium: the modern one contradicting the traditional one. The point and purpose of this presentation being that, to effectuate better the unity and solidarity implicit in the Mystical Body of Christ, a better mechanism should be devised for resolving such disputes, thus resulting in a more constructive exchange between the universal Church and the particular churches.. This sent a shiver through the whole Church and presented Pope Paul VI an unprecedented challenge to the Churchs teaching. There are obviously dangers to banishing people, to having communities decide which individuals do and dont belong, but I think we need to restore balance. And because the land under each tribes feet is the source of its culture, each is unique. Ive been told that one of the meanings of the name Windigo has to do with thinking only of oneself. The reason is that the ultimate ground for our intellectual assent to revealed truth is the supremely infallible knowledge God has of all truth.. This tells us that when persons deal with symbolic materials, like words stand for or refer to things, they experience a different way of knowledge than knowing through concepts. However, he returned the manuscript before finishing it with the interesting comment: An important part of this work is a critical treatment of an experiment of mine published thirty years ago. Kimmerer: By paying attention. I will say to the moss, Im not going to snatch you from your home and grind you up to learn your secrets. Paul Schilpp, N.Y., Harper & Row, 1959, p. 33. Thats where I find common ground. What is Windigo? Concepts of the same external object are stable and normally identical for different persons perceiving the same. McConnell, and Robert C. Challmann, Macmillan, N.Y., 1942, p. 426. To my mind, plants meet any definition of intelligence. Honesty is added as a necessary condition for this certitude. One is potential, the other one manifest - which in most people is the right-hand side which corresponds to the left brain. Tonino: Youve always loved plants, but your relationship to them has transformed over time. Every person who has learned to read is using the creative intellect that enables him to see the invisible relationbetween the word and its referent. We know what to do and how to do things. Kimmerer: Its essential to acknowledge what the land provides, because most people dont understand it, or they forget. Boethius scholastic definition is: A person is an individual substance with a rational nature. In common parlance we say a person is a human being who experiences his own existence and can think. Different persons respond to the same bit of reality in a different way, according to each ones talents, tastes, needs and background of experience. There are two parallel ways of knowing: thinking and feeling, intellect and intuition, objective analysis and subjective insight. Kimmerer: One of the many factors that fueled the colonization of North America by European settlers was the settlers materialist worldview. These experienced subjective states lack all reference to objective reality, since the context theory omits the knowing activity. For Dewey there are no non-sensory, immaterial entities deserving of mans interest. That is why, in the definition of meaning, words are treated as signs of ideas agreed upon by social consensus. 2Elements of Christian Philosophy, Etienne Gilson, Doubleday & Co., Inc., Garden City, N.Y., 1960, p. 231. But in nineteen reports after seeing pictures and words, all spoke of getting the meaning of the word; no one used the word concept. At that early age through the experience of daily family living her intellect had already gained the power to recognize meaning relationships between oral sounds and their referents. So are the disputes, the controversies, and the procedures through which testing and checking occurs. When someone inflicts an injury with his right hand on his neighbor, that neighbor willrespond by holding this person guilty for the injury, not his right hand. Roger Sperry, neuroscientist, reports in Interview, Omni, August, 1983, p. 74: Consciousness, free will and values; these three long-standing thorns in the side of science. Artistic Knowing: To understand our experiences and to help others understand them . The Pharisees knew exactly what it meant. Joseph Cardinal Ratzinger has written: Today we know that man needs transcendence so that he may shape his world, that will always be imperfect, in such a way that people can live in it in a manner in keeping with humandignity.27. Still he would blindly believe in the God he could not see but whose Word he trusted absolutely. We need to break that cycle. Likewise, I think its important to recognize the sovereignty of each kind of knowledge, to maintain their distinctiveness and allow each to be visible and vital. Can this declaration be contradicted if the presentAnglican Church corrects its defective intention? Moores experimental demonstration of the origin of knowledge can be compressed in a relatively short excerpt from his textbook, Cognitive Psychology, 1939. It has the authority and also the resources to make its worldview manifest in the world. Though long ago there was conflict between our peoples, today our cultures are bound by the fact that we are both caretakers of Maple Nation. Do we want it to be an oak savanna? Each orientation affords certain possibilities and dangers. Moore, of the Catholic University of America, was solidly instructed in the principles of Thomistic (perennial) philosophy and later trained in both Wundts and Kiilpes laboratories, (therefore a genuine neo-scholastic competentin both philosophy and in the principles and techniques of the new science). Advanced technologies can help us to see the flower from the bees perspective and get beyond the limitations of our five senses. Impact suggests we are outside the system as opposed to being a part of it. He was also a highly motivated priest. They create and maintain relationships with other beings. In thus establishing the reliability of mans concepts of objective reality, we are prepared to address the definition of meaning as another but lesser way to knowledge. All these angiosperms around us, these flowering plants, are Johnny-come-latelies. Kimmerer: I do. Are judgment and meaning identical mental acts, since both express a relationship between two things? He asks a lumberman what a tree means to him. To view or add a comment, sign in. Kimmerer: I remember being acutely disappointed when what I thought was important about plants growing up was dismissed by the scientific establishment. Christ, Divine Psychologist, gives the clearest testimony to the difference between knowing and understanding. He also declares that since Vatican II this vertical dimension has been obscured and many have grasped only the horizontal dimension. Here we see the creative intellect at work at an early age, which, when sufficiently matured, makes reading possible. Given the chair of philosophy at Columbia U. in New York in 1904, Dewey became the dean of American progressive education until he retired a quarter century later in 1929. These spiritual hungers can be satisfied only if man has the faculty to find truth and also the faculty to respond with freedom. Alongside evidence-based practice, there are other ways of knowing. And they give much more to the community than they take. How come youre that color? The stage is now set for the surprise rebuttal of Moores concept is meaning in the same experiment. For we can hear a spoken word, but we do not `hear its meaning, we `understand it. But to the indigenous way of thinking, the observer is always in relationship with the observed, and thus its important that she know herself: As I watch that bee and flower, as I study how water moves, as I observe the growth of the grass in this meadow, I understand that the kind of being I am colors how I see and feel and know. ), and perfected by Thomas Aquinas (1225-1274 A.D.). In the introduction, meaning is declared to be a knowledge not different from the knowledge of the first way but one that has acquired a change in quality and value. He learns three more symbols for dog besides canis in Latin chien in French, cane in Italian, and hund in German. All rights reserved. Kimmerer: Absolutely. The descriptive term conventional which means agreed upon by responsible social consensus, is needed here to distinguish this relation from relationships found in judgment and understanding. That information too is a concept learned from experience. The Center also works to increase opportunities for Native American students in the environmental sciences. Sweetgrass is used in basketry, and its a ceremonial plant. As an aspiring botany major, I was pressured to adopt the scientific worldview; to conceive of these living beings as mere objects. If we would embrace the possibility of plant intelligence and investigate it without any anthropocentric bias, we might be surprised by what we learn. The author wisely moves beyond the philosophical and theoretical to show how a proper understanding of the definition of meaning has consequences on catechetics, liturgy, academic freedom, and the dissident magisterium. In my name indicates that the Holy Spirit will not work on His own authority and initiate His own program. There has to be an explanation, a rationale for this behavior of universal language. And when we talk about science, we also tend to treat it as monolithic, even though ecologists and molecular geneticists and astrophysicists think about the world differently. 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